Conditions for the validity of Salaah

Q: It has been some time ago that I had read something in Ma'aariful Quraan of mufti Shafi' sb (RA) and I just cannot remember in which volume it appears. The discussion was on the namaaz times in those countries where they have six months day lite and six months night. First time I had read that explanation and I'd like to read it again but just cannot find it. Will it be possible to let me know under the tafseer of which aayat I will be able to find it?

Q: It is understood that performing Salaah/Sajdah in a place with najaasat is impermissible, with or without Prayer mat. But, I have witnessed many Muslims offering Salaah on the floor at offices, at railway stations, inside the aircraft, in trains, on the roads, on the deck of a ship/boat, etc. These places are frequented by many people returning from the toilets with their footwear on, which has a lot of najaasat. Will Salaah not be invalid for those who pray at these places with najaasat? I have had many debates with these people who justify that their Salaah is valid in these places.

Q: Following your question regarding making qadha of a fajr salaah started before sunrise but went over sunrise time whilst in salaah, what would one do if it is at a non makrook time? I.e. Asar beginning is at 3pm. One started zohr at 2.58 and finished at 3.05pm? What should one do and what is the condition of his salah?

Q: I understand it is a condition of the prayer when following an imam to intend to be linked to the imam. I also understand that the intention should be such that if a person was asked regarding his prayer, he should respond immediately without having to think-otherwise his prayer is invalid. I spend several minutes trying to make the intention for prayer, for example, to intend to read Fard of Isha Behind the imam. Despite this even after a few minutes of trying to make the intention, if one was to ask me what prayer I was praying I am able to respond immediately without thinking Fard of Isha. However, I have think very briefly remind myself I am praying behind the imam. And this happens almost every time even after five minutes of intention making. I am getting depressed over this because apparantly it makes my prayer invalid. Please can you help me?

Q: For Fardh and Wajib Salaahs:

1. Is it necessary to state the number of rakaats you are praying? i.e I am praying 3 rakaats maghrib, 2 rakaat fajr etc
2. Is it sufficient to just state the salaah i.e I am praying Fajr ,Maghrib etc?

Q: I have heard recently that some Fuqahaa have permitted  a certain amount of degrees leeway on either side when facing the qibla. Could you please elaborate on this?

Q: Nowadays we use a prayer time chart but we hear from Darul Uloom Deobond that this is not accurate and they quote a hadith that for calculating the time of Esha salah we have to calculate the time difference between the rising and setting of the moon in every 3rd day of the current lunar month. Suppose the difference is 1 hr 47 minute then Esha will be 1 hr 47 minuets after Magrib for the same complete month and the process will continue. What is the truth?

Q: I will be sailing on a ship from Cape Town to Sydney in Australia. Since I will be losing time going East. How can I calculate the time for Fajr?

Q: I would be leaving my country and will travel in a ship as I got selected for the Navy. I want to know on what timings I can perform Salaah on the ship as there would be no Adhaan. So, please answer on what timings to pray Salaah while travelling on a ship and if I miss Friday Salaah, how can I repent.

Q: For Sunnah Salaah does one have to make it with the niyyah of the Fardh Salah one is praying it for? E.g making niyyah that I am performing 2 Sunnah of Zuhr?